Session 3 (10/3) - Japan Becoming a Pacific Power

[cgao]

Japan already had large urban centers and vibrant trade at the time of the 1868 Meiji Restoration, but economic and other changes accelerated with the change in government. The country ended its existing class system, expanded education, built a strong industrial base, built a modern military, and seized colonial holdings. War and depression fed dislocation and grievances, trends towards cultural diversity and democratization competed with other forces. In this workshop, we’ll look at how Japanese politics, economics, society and culture changed from the 19th into the mid-20th centuries.

Japan's Modern Transition

Professor Morgan Pitelka teaches history and Asian studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He also serves as the Chair of the Department of Asian Studies and specializes in the history of late medieval and early modern Japan, with a focus on the samurai, tea culture, ceramics, cities, and material culture.

Required readings

• The Meiji Restoration from Sources of Japanese Tradition 
• Locally Ancient and Globally Modern by Mark Ravina

 

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Part 1: Japan, Asia, and the West

Part 2: Democratization, Imperialism, and the World though Japanese Perspectives 

Professor Takeda Tomoki 武田知己 teaches Japanese history and political science at the Daito Bunka University in Japan. His focus is on Japan’s international relations and he has edited seven books, including ones on foreign relations and the history of Japan’s political parties.

 

 

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Lessons in Resilience: Tokyo’s Fire History

Professor Steven Wills teaches about Japanese history and popular culture and serves as department chair at Nebraska Wesleyan University. His research has focused on the rise of Tokyo since the 19th century. Among the topics he’s studied is the creation of firefighting capabilities and how the city coped with the devastating Kanto earthquake in 1923.

Required reading

• Governance, Arson, and Firefighting in Edo, 1600-1868

 

 

[clay dube]

Hi Everyone -- we know this is an especially heavy week for everyone in the seminar. In addition to our Wednesday discussion (which includes a roleplaying activity, we're asking that you watch videos about Japanese history to get ready for an extended discussion session on Saturday. We really appreciate your effort to do this.

On the videos, please pay particular attention to Prof. Takeda's 2nd video on the road to World War II. It's his field of expertise and should be a great follow-up to the videos from Prof. Pitelka and Wills. We should have a very lively discussion Saturday. If you have any friends or colleagues who are particularly interested in how Japan went from being threatened by outside forces to being a world power, in less than a century, let them know about the opportunity. For the two Japan Saturday workshops, we can let in teachers who are not part of the core seminar. They cannot receive course credit, but can learn a lot from these terrific specialists. Please send them to: https://china.usc.edu/seminars/free-workshop-making-japan-modern-japan%E2%80%99s-rise-and-pacific-war

[clay dube]

This reading selected by Prof. Pitelka raises and responds to an interesting question:
How did the political leaders and other participants in public discussions manage to "harmonize" new with ancient and foreign with Japanese? How did they turn a movement that looked backward to an era when emperors ruled and which called for the rejection of barbarians and their ideas wind up creating a modern state that welcomed outsiders and emulated some foreign things?

[Katherine Caneba]

This lecture cleared up a lot of vague half-understandings and questions that I have had for a long time about what exactly led up to Japan’s role in the Asia-Pacific Region in the 1900s. The Self-Strengthening Movement in China was reflected clearly in Japan’s similar aim to assimilate Western technologies and systems they deemed useful, while still maintaining a nationalist identity that was uniquely culturally and politically Japanese. However, unlike the Chinese, who struggled with significant internal political unrest that kept their focus inward, the Japanese were able to plan better and be proactive in sending a knowledge expedition (a.k.a., the Iwakura Mission) around the world to “study their enemy”, so to speak. I got the sense that Japan was able to prepare more effectively for Western influences by taking control over which foreign reforms to implement, as well as how.

Furthermore, it was surprising to me (although perhaps it shouldn’t have been) to learn that Japan learned the ways of colonization from observing how Western powers colonized other territories (and coveting the kind of power and resources they had gained from their colonies). Even though there were some countries in Asia that seemingly escaped Western colonization, Japan ended up being a colonizing power throughout the rest of Asia during WWII. It is so ironic that countries like Great Britain and the United States that ended up forming the Allies in WWII had inspired the formation of their enemy in the Japanese Empire.

Lastly, this lecture also brought up “revisionist history” questions: What if Japan had not colonized Hokkaido? What if Sakhalin had become part of modern Japan instead of Russia? The political boundaries that we may take for granted as facts today were not so clear one hundred years ago. In my own lifetime, Pluto started out as a planet and then was demoted, the Berlin Wall came down, the erstwhile country of Sudan split into Sudan and South Sudan, East Timor split off from Indonesia to gain religious freedom, etc. If I were teaching students in a classroom setting about world history, I would promote discussion about how events in history shape the world as we know it right now, and how history never stops happening.

[Thomas Pineda]

This article was an interesting deep-dive on the use of iconology on currency as a way for nations to self-brand their ideology while showing their unity as a nation. Something that may be overlooked in the digital day and age of credit and electronic transfers, the origins of images on hard currency provide not just a look into the developmental stages of burgeoning nations, but also serve as tools for sharing those stories. Due in part to the Iwakura Mission to the United States, developers of Japan’s restructuring looked at the prosperity and modernity of Western nations and worked with them to emulate to look of that wealth on their banknotes. What was interesting was the input from both Japanese and Americans in the curating of Japanese images for their new paper currency. This “self-censorship” involved removing some of the religious imagery deeply entrenched in Japanese culture that was deemed too primitive to fit in with modern times. While some of it remained, more notes were branded with the ancient heroes or legends that supported Japanese nationalism and sovereignty. This curation at once celebrated the uniqueness of Japan’s culture and history while also avoiding anything that would seem uncivilized or backwards. In a way, this process reminds me of the way students go through phases of self-representation and rebrand themselves as they mature through time. Printed currency is somehow like those snapshots over time, how students or people in general can look back and say “Wow, I can’t believe I used to dress like that.” At that time in the Meiji Restoration, they were looking for ways that would carrying them away from the feudal society they were before, towards something that would long-lasting and continually express modernity.

[clay dube]

The podcast recommended by Prof. Wills is Malcolm Gladwell's Revisionist History. I'm a Gladwell fan as well. Episodes 4-7 of season 5 focus on the development of US fire bombing capacity. http://revisionisthistory.com/seasons?selected=season-5

[Susie Suh]

The Japanese used Shintoism to create a sort of national identity just like Christianity did for many of the European/Western nations. I think this is a really interesting way to compare how we idolize figures in history as symbolic figures of the people's desires. For instance, within U.S. History, the Great Awakening was a way of creating a foundation of new American identity from pre-existing notions of life and religion. We could compare that to how Japan was able to utilize their traditional religion to create a new Japanese identity that would help propel them into the modern age.

[Cynthia Jackson]

The Japanese Charter Oath of 1868 exemplifies Japan’s willingness to modernize in the style of “the West”. While they did not become a democracy, their discussion of “matters being decided with open discussion” and “everything should be based on the just laws of Nature” reflects the beliefs of Enlightenment philosophers and some monarchs. There were European monarchs who during this period were excited by these ideas and used them to improve the quality of life in their countries, whether through education, access to food, or by providing economic stability within their borders. However, make no mistake- like the Japanese did- these Enlightenment monarchs also used this time to solidify their base of power. I wonder if the Japanese both saw an opportunity to modernize their country so as not to be “left behind” and recognized that they could politically strengthen a ruler like the Europeans had.

[Cynthia Jackson]

Additionally, I found it interesting that both China and Japan were keenly interested in western thought and practices, however one country had difficulty with drawing from these ideas’ strengths and the other country had less trouble doing so. For a long time, the Qing Empire was concerned that China’s culture would be lost if Western ideas were used, however the Meiji embraced some of these cultural changes which seemingly allowed them to protect their empire’s future and re-define their culture according to their terms. The line from the Charter Oath reading, “Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule” shows that Japan wanted an emperor who could preserve Japan’s history and traditions while expanding their powers in the western style. On the other hand, China the Qing Empire was willing to consider western education, science, and technology, but did not see westernization and modernization as an opportunity to strengthen the emperor’s seat of power. What made Japan more willing or capable of blending western thought into their empire and preserving their own culture? I wonder if Japan’s long-standing feudal practices, which were similar to European societies in the medieval period- the previous era before exploration, imperial rule, and mass nation building- made it easier for the Japanese to imagine or to actually transition into this new period of their history. If this is the case, then it would also make sense that China would have more resistance and difficulty westernizing as they would be changing more than Japan needed to in order to accomplish the same goal- modernization without cultural sacrifice.

[Cynthia Jackson]

Thinking back to this conversation of unequal treaties that we had on Wednesday night, Commodore Perry visiting Japan on behalf of the U.S. and demanding trading rights or the consequences would be war, gave me two thoughts. (1) This is history that we do not focus on as Americans. In school, I’ve seen this same event taught as “Perry opened Japan through negotiations. What a feat!” The limited positive spin on this history with Japan makes me wonder if K-12 history textbooks were written this way post-World War II as the U.S. grieved those lost in the Pearl Harbor attack and as not to undermine a government that had built internment camps for Japanese Americans. While unfair treaties does not condone an attack 100 years later on service members and citizens that are not at war with you and while they sleep, as Americans, I feel like we are also led to believe that the U.S. interacted with Japan very little prior to World War II. Their relationship certainly changed as a result of that war, but I am now considering that the Japanese could have had other motivations to attack the U.S. besides their economic support of the Allies and that the Japanese could have been using war tactics that they had personally witnessed western powers use before. (2) Some people pointed out that the Treaty of Nanjing was not exceptional and that many treaties of this period were written in this style- the militarily stronger country decided the terms. Although I agree, I believe the reason that these particular treaties deserve so much attention is because as people studying history, we know what happened during the 20th century and now. Both China and Japan rose to power, competing and fighting with the same western nations that had subjected them to these treaties. The “unfairness” they were subjected to was not forgotten or forgiven. We see this same trend with Germany post-World War I. They also did not forget or forgive the dishonor attached to their country and the economic failure they plunged into after the Treaty of Versailles. The world paid for that unfair treaty in horrific ways. So yes, unfair treaties were not new in the 19th century and had been used by tribes, countries, and empires for hundreds of years, but the stakes of these treaties and their human costs as the world experienced the industrial revolution were higher.

[Brigid Schmidt]

Prof Morgan Pitelka lead a fascinating lecture about Japan's path to modernization. Prior to these lectures, I felt Japan was one of the countries that I didn't know as much about during this time period. The topic of Japan's 3 systems was brought up. Prof Pitelka talked about the System of Alternate Attendance which was meant to control the bodies of potential enemies and prevent the possibility of an uprising. He mentioned that although it started off as futile, it ended up being partly a contributor to the peace during this time. Prof Pitelka went into greater depth when discussing the Status System. This was the key to Tokugawa Rule and why there was a long period of peace. It was a triangle or pyramid diagram of a social hierarchy separating Japanese residents into occupational groups/categories. The emperor was at the top even though he really only had symbolic authority and the real person in charge was the Shogun or military ruler who came next in the diagram. Underneath them were the Local rulers/Domainal Lords (similar to a king) who ruled certain domains. Then came the Samurai (warriors) who were more of guards and bureaucrats because it was a time of peace. After them were the largest population of agriculturalists (farmers), then craftspeople, and finally merchants. However, people like doctors and Buddhist or Shinto clergy were not in the system because they could help all people and there were people who were out of the system and discriminated against for being beggars, prostitutes, and urban poor. The last system he described was the Closed Country diplomacy and trade system. It was meant to control contact with the outside world. There were many tensions in the system that lead to its downfall. The merchants were getting wealthier, while the Samurai were not making more money. Another tension was foreign encroachment from sea. 

From what I learned, it seemed like the Status System kept the peace in the country the longest, but it also seems barbaric. It would be an interesting role play to have my students become members of each Japanese occupational group for the Status System and see how they relate to one another while following the rules of the emperor and shogun. I think this would be a fun way to help the students relate to the class system and relate it to other cultures who had similar systems. 

[Khrystle San Diego]

After viewing these videos and articles, I am intrigued by Japan's "identity struggle" in regards to keeping their own traditional and cultural roots while also integrating some Western modernization. Specifically in the Ravina reading, "Locally Ancient and Globally Modern," Japan, as a whole, was hoping to become a hegemony andwas coping with the modernity that other nations were also facing. A quote in the reading by Carol Gluck states "modernity is not optional in history," fascinates me because it responds to the fact that during the late 1800s and the early 1900s, nations around the world were all experiencing their own responses to becoming modern nations. The Meiji Restoration hoped to build Japanese up as a competitive hegemony in terms of their military, culture, and their technological advancements. One such was was the integration of a new type of paper currency. Their new notes depicted various images that were not very traditional and were actually printed and engraved in the United States. Much like the United States in their anti-counterfeiting efforts, Japan began using technological advancements which included copperplate printing rather than their traditional Japanese woodblocks. Upon looking at the currency, they looked rather similar to those of the United States Dollars. Because of their modernization, other nations began to recognize them as a world power and encouraged their alliance with other nations. Although this was "good" for Japan's emergence as a potential power, within the country, nationalistic ideologies were challenged and became an issue of struggle. 

[clay dube]

How did priorities in Japan change during the Meiji period? You may wish to have students compare these two official edicts. The first, in 1868, is the Charter Oath. The second is the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education.

Our partners at Columbia have a copy of the Charter Oath and discussion questions:
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/japan/charter_oath_1868.pdf

Here is a 19th century translation of the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education

Know ye, Our subjects:

Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue; Our subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein lies the source of Our education.

Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious; as friends true; bear yourselves in modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers; furthermore advance public good and promote common interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws; should emergency arise, offer yourselves courageously to the State; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth.

So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers. The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed alike by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible for all ages and true in all places. It is Our wish to lay it to heart in all reverence, in common with you, Our subjects, that we may thus attain to the same virtue.

You can find Japan Times op-eds in 2017 on the importance and legacy of the Imperial Rescript on Education.

 

[Betsy Telle]

I found this lecture absolutely facinating. I think that my students would love to learn about this as well. It is so interesting that Edo lived with the reality of constant fires for 200 years. There are so many aspects to look at with students. From a Science stand point we can look at the chemical and physical changes of the fires, as well as the effect of the roofing materials on flamibility. That allows for in Math to look at the economics of builiding costs versuses loss expenses due to fires. Students could look at how the residents adapted and survived, major themes in my class.

[Susie Suh]

It is really interesting to compare how political leaders of various countries molded their constitution/ government structure after the founding of the U.S. The four leaders of the Meiji Restoration could be compared to the U.S.' Founding Fathers on both of their views on the role of government in society, their ideology in regards to foreign nations, and the founding principles of their nation for the people.

What wars were pivotal in establishing this new identity they were forging? This is a question that could be asked about many nations including the U.S., as the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 cemented the U.S.' founding and independence from Great Britain. The Civil War also cemented our nation's official stance on slavery, which was a huge shift into modernity for many of its people. Then of course the Great Wars (WWI and WWII) which also cemented the U.S.' role as a superpower on the global stage. The Japanese victory over China in the First Sino Japanese War allowed them to set their foundation for dominance in the East Asian region. Their success in putting down any internal military skirmishes from the independence movement in the Korean peninsula also allowed them to maintain and build their reputation as an imperial power. 

The debate to westernize and modernize Japan without losing their essential "Japanese-ness" is one to discuss as well. Who determines what the "essence" of a nation is? Can we apply this question to what it means to be "American?" Is there a permanent essence of a nation or is the essence changing with the ebb and flow of its population? Who does it benefit to protect these traditional yet man-made images of national identities? 

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